Chinese discourse on incense became a "study" from the Song dynasty onward. Below, in order of their compilation, the origins, chapters, and readable selections of several key monographs are laid out one by one.
Hong Chu, courtesy name Jufu, was a member of the Jiangxi School of poetry in the Northern Song. Xiangpu isthe earliest extant systematic monograph on incense culture(the original text was partially lost in transmission; extant editions are mostly based on collectanea such as Baichuan Xuehai, and the division of volumes may differ). For the first time it brought scattered knowledge of aromatics into the framework of a "treatise."
The transmitted Xiangpu generally unfolds along four headings:
"Agarwood comes from the mountains of the Southern Seas. Its heartwood is hard and black, and it sinks when placed in water." — This is the most plain-spoken definition of agarwood in the Xiangpu (Treatise on Incense): judging its quality by whether it "sinks in water," it heralded the later notion of "sinking grade."
Note: The texts of ancient transmitted editions differ from one another; the above quotation follows the general sense of the common edition and is not a verbatim definitive text. For study, please consult facsimile editions such as Baichuan Xuehai and Congshu Jicheng.
Chen Jing, courtesy name Zizhong, was a man of the Southern Song. Chen's Treatise on Incense was built upon Hong Chu's Xiangpugathering the great achievements of earlier ages, and its collection is richer still: beyond incense types, incense matters, and incense recipes, it also gathers poems, lyrics, and prose on incense, making it a veritable "catalogue record."
The whole book is usually arranged in four volumes, with the following thread:
Its value lies in its "breadth"—it was the first systematic compilation of the scattered incense materials from before the Song, and is one of the most important precursors to the Xiangcheng.
Zhou Jiazhou, courtesy name Jiangzuo, a native of Yangzhou, was a scholar of the Wanli to Chongzhen period of the Ming. The Xiangcheng is a monumental work on incense culture(香学) that hecompiled with decades of effort, and it is also, in ancient China,the largest and most systematically complete comprehensive work on incense culture(香学)。
The whole book may be divided into four major sections:
| Section | Volume (approx.) | Content |
|---|---|---|
| Incense Items | Volumes 1–16 | Agarwood, sandalwood, dragon, musk, wood, herb, fruit, and vegetable aromatics, with detailed origins, properties, and authentication |
| Incense Practices | Volumes 17–23 | Incense anecdotes, official titles, vessels, and rituals through the dynasties, with Buddhist and Daoist incense use |
| Incense Formulas | Volumes 24–27 | More than 400 formulas including blended incense, seal incense, bedroom incense, and clothes-fumigating incense |
| Incense Writings | Volume 28 | Incense poems, rhapsodies, inscriptions, and discourses, appended at the end |
"The use of incense benefits all broadly. ... I loved it from youth, collected from many schools, accumulated over years, and thus completed this compilation." — One man's effort gathering a thousand years of incense: this is what makes Xiang Cheng most moving.
For those studying Chinese incense culture today, Xiang Cheng is nearly an essential desk reference; its "Incense Formulas" section is also the most direct documentary basis for reconstructing ancient blended incense.
Tu Long, courtesy name Changqing, sobriquet Chishui, was a Ming dynasty literatus and playwright. He wrote not only plays but also about life—Seven Essentials of Incense Burning is devoted tothe seven implements needed for the matter of burning incense, making it a highly practical "guide to incense-seat implements."
| Preface | Implements | Use |
|---|---|---|
| One | Censer | Main incense burner, discussing shape and copper material |
| Two | Incense box | Store incense, moisture-proof and air-proof |
| Three | Furnace ash | Protect fire, even heat |
| Four | Incense charcoal | Heat source for indirect fire incense burning |
| Five | Fire-insulating sand piece | Separates charcoal fire from incense, preventing burning |
| Six | Spirit ash | Spread base and arrange ash to help even temperature |
| Seven | Spoon and chopsticks | Tools for arranging ash and taking incense |
Among the seven essentials, the 'fire-insulating sand piece' is the most crucial—it means that Ming dynasty literati had widely adoptedIndirect fire incense burning(not directly ignited, but warmed by charcoal) to achieve a clear and moist aroma without burning. Today, when appreciating agarwood, this method is still followed.
Gao Lian, courtesy name Shenfu, was a health preservation expert of the Ming Dynasty. 'Zunsheng Bajian' is an encyclopedia covering health preservation and refined appreciation, among which 'Yanzian Qingshang Jian' discussesThe joy of a literati's leisurely life, and incense is an important part.
Wen Zhenheng, courtesy name Qimei, great-grandson of Wen Zhengming. Zhangwuzhi is devoted to "superfluous things"—objects external to the self, useless yet indispensable—and is a concentrated expression of late Ming literati taste. Its chapter "Xiangming" discusses incense burners, incense materials, and the appreciation of incense.
"Incense burners—vessels of the Three Dynasties, Qin, and Han, as well as newly cast ones, are all usable; only those made by modern marketplace craftsmen must not be used."—Wen Zhenheng valued antiquity and elegance and disdained vulgar craftsmanship, representing the scholar-official's demand for "rank" in incense implements.
He also commented on the use of incense materials such as agarwood, sandalwood, borneol, and rose, advocating "prefer subtle to strong," in the same lineage as the Song dynasty's "pure offerings."
Tao Gu, courtesy name Xiushi, served in office from the Five Dynasties through the Song. Qingyilu is a miscellany-style classified reference work, and its "Xunliaomen" section specifically recordsincense anecdotes from the Five Dynasties to the early Song, with many historical anecdotes and little doctrinal argument, making for the most worldly, everyday reading.
Dong Shuo, courtesy name Ruoyu, a figure of the late Ming and early Qing, of strangely broad learning. Liexiang Xinpu is appended to his Feiyan Xiangfa (Non-Smoke Incense Method) and is adistinctive discourse on incense: it not only records formulas but also discusses "the principles of incense."
Feiyan Xiangfa advocates that burning incense should seek the realm of "non-smoke"—that is, fragrance that is clear and far-reaching, without the harshness of smoke and fire; Liexiang Xinpu, meanwhile, extensively collects incense varieties and methods, the two complementing each other as outer and inner. Though the book is small, it represents the late Ming lineage of "using incense to discuss principles."
When reading classical texts, it is best to cross-check them against actual materials: when a book says "sinking grade," go try a piece of real agarwood in water; when a book says "separated-fire," go heat a slice of qinan(kyara) over separated fire. Only when textual evidence and practical verification corroborate each other can incense culture(香学) stand firm.
The following Q&A is compiled from content on this site for quick reference; descriptions of the medicinal properties of incense materials are all traditional understandings and do not constitute medical advice.
The most core ones include: Ding Wei's Tianxiang Zhuan (Treatise on Heavenly Fragrance) of the Northern Song (the earliest monograph on agarwood), Hong Chu's Xiangpu (Treatise on Incense) of the Southern Song, Zhou Jiagui's Xiangcheng (Incense Compendium) of the Ming dynasty (a culmination in twenty-eight volumes), Gao Lian's Zunsheng Bajian · Lunxiang (Eight Discourses on the Art of Living · On Incense), the Ming-dynasty Fénxiāng Qīyào (Seven Essentials of Burning Incense), and Chen Jing's Chenshi Xiangpu (Chen Family Treatise on Incense). This site provides original texts and annotated translations for all of them.
The Xiangcheng was compiled by Zhou Jiagui in the late Ming dynasty, in twenty-eight volumes in total. It collects incense materials, incense formulas, incense utensils, incense practices, and anecdotes from successive dynasties and is regarded as the culmination of traditional Chinese incense culture(香学). The "Xiangcheng Annotated Translation" section of this site provides modern Chinese annotated translations of all twenty-eight volumes, one by one.
It is recommended to go from short to long: first read short pieces such as Tianxiang Zhuan and Shixiang De (The Ten Virtues of Incense) to build a framework, then read entries in the Xiangpu category, and finally move on to a close reading of the volumes of the Xiangcheng annotated translation. When reading the original texts, you can refer to the annotations and collation notes on this site's annotated translation pages.
This article was compiled by Wubaiyi agarwood. Copyright of text and images belongs to Wubaiyi agarwood; reproduction, excerpting, or mirroring without written authorization is prohibited. The content is compiled based on publicly available classical texts and research on Chinese Incense Culture(香学). You are welcome to visit our store to appreciate incense and exchange ideas.